The Theory Of Animal Intelligence By Edward L. Thorndike...

Edward L. Thorndike’s Impact Zion Johnson American River College Psychology 300 Ms. Carlson Contribution to Animal Learning As a young man working in the field of Psychology mostly working in the field of educational Psychology while teaching at the University of Columbia. His exploration into the mind of animal’s learning habits led the world to figuring out connectionism. Before Thorndike had discovered the theory of Animal Intelligence the anecdotal method was always used which used collections of memorial events or situations where animals showed natural thinking processes. Thorndike challenged this method for the flaws that it showed including overestimation of animals natural thought by using experiments that his test subjects could use to attempt to counter the anecdotal method. Edward ultimately assumed that they simply use trial and error method to discover answers to the experiments.(International Encyclopedia of Social Science 2008). The Puzzle Box Experiment Through this experiment Edward placed a cat inside of a box with latches that could open the door to let the kitten out. Through trial and error as the cat proceeded to go through this experiment multiple times the times it took the cat to open the door were documented. While the cat struggled with the first trial by the end of the experiment the cat developed a sense of how to get through the cage within seconds showing that animals do not learn mental processing, butShow MoreRelatedLearning Theories Essay6222 Words   |  25 PagesLearning Theories   †¢ The Technological Revolution †¢ The Spectrum of Learning Theories †¢ Behaviorism †¢ Constructivism †¢ Fitting the Other Theories into the Spectrum †¢ Theory of Multiple Intelligence †¢ Learning Theories and the Brain †¢ Brain Structures †¢ Implications for Learning Theory †¢ Implications for Multimedia †¢ References    By Darren Forrester Noel Jantzie Kilde: http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/%7Egnjantzi/learning_theories.htm    ThisRead MoreFinal Study Guide5129 Words   |  21 Pageslearning can best be described as a achievement b aptitude c intelligence d ability 7 The potential for learning a specific skill can best be described as a achievement b aptitude c intelligence d ability 8 Ones general potential, independent of prior learning, can best be described as a achievement b aptitude c intelligence d ability Final Exam Study Guide Psychological Test Measurement 2 9 Achievement, aptitude and intelligence can be encompassed by the term a human potential b human traitsRead MoreContemporary Applications of Schools in Psychology8487 Words   |  34 Pagespsychology, Behaviorism, Psychoanalysis and Humanistic Psychology. Each school in psychology followed a certain viewpoint or perspective that defined it and its research and treatment methods. From each distinctive viewpoint there arose unique theories and concepts that can be seen applied widely in various fields in today’s world. These perspectives can be seen in contemporary fields within applied psychology like clinical psychology, social psychology, forensic psychology, health psychologyRead MoreHerbert Spencer Essay13142 Words   |  53 PagesLaw and Cause, an essay published in 1857, he extended the idea of evolutionary progress to human society as well as to the animal and physical worlds. All nature moves from the simple to the complex. This fundamental law is seen in the evolution of human society as it is seen in the geological transformation of the earth and in the origin and development of plant and animal species. Natural selection, as described by Charles Darwin in the Origin of Species, published in 1859, completed SpencersRead MoreOverview of Hrm93778 Words   |  376 Pagesorganization. It is a managerial function that tries to match an organization’s needs to the skills and abilities of its employees. Let’s see what is meant by the three HRM key terms†¦ human, resource, and management. †¢ Human (Homo-sapiens – Social Animal) †¢ Resources (Human, Physical, Financial, Technical, Informational etc) †¢ Management (Function of Planning, Organizing, Leading Controlling resources to accomplish goals efficiently and effectively) Management Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed of organizational

The Greatest Era Of American History - 985 Words

If I had the fortuity to adventure to any place or time of my choosing, I would undoubtedly select, what I believe to be, the greatest era of American history. This was a time when every man’s fingerprint set a precedent for the future of American government. The age where citizens gallantly fought for revolution from their oppressors, nobly laying down their lives for freedom for their descendants. A generation that turned a moment into a movement by discovering their voices and utilizing them to shape a new nation that they got to build. I would travel to watch the birth of America in the 18th century. Although other choices in romantic Europe and ancient China would tempt me because of my other roots, America is my home. America has gotten to watch me grow up, so I would like to return the favor and witness the birth of my nation. I would walk the streets of New York before it was mutilated by flashy signs and taxicabs, and hear shouts of revelation from men in the streets instead of profanation. Citizens then were involved in their government, and would exercise their right to vote instead of taking it for granted. Men, women, and children alike would sit and listen attentively for hours on end to political addresses and speakers who advocated for change. The middle class knew about bills that were being passed and the state of foreign affairs. All of the social classes spoke to each other with an air of sophistication and linguistic maturity that has been contorted inShow MoreRelatedEvolution of Film1138 Words   |  5 Pagesa squishy chair, of reaching with one hand into a bowl of butter-soaked popcorn; and of resting for two care-free hours to watch a movie meant to bring great emotion to the audience. Since their creation, movies have become a significant part of American culture. Today hundreds of millions of dollars are spent on creating movies and just as much is spent on viewing them. To keep up with popular demand, the industry is always ch anging and the equation to form a great movie is continually developingRead MoreJazz Influences on the 20th Century1158 Words   |  5 PagesCentury Jazz is considered one of the most influential types of music in American history. Some of the greatest artists in the world have contributed to the success jazz has had not only on American history, but throughout the world. Jazz music has come to serve as the base of many music styles in the United States. This paper will explain the history of jazz, where it all came from, and the effect it has had on the American culture in the 20th century. To start off, Meltingpot.fortuecityRead MoreLangston Hughes, An American Born Writer During The Harlem Renaissance Era930 Words   |  4 PagesLangston Hughes was an American born writer during the Harlem Renaissance era. His work shed light on issues that white Americans turned their backs to. Racism and segregations was, at one time, a very large issue in our country. Hughes addressed that issue throughout poetry and in doing so, became the most popular writer of his time. He opened the eyes of many, while accurately portraying African American culture in such a way that everyone couldn’t respect. The passion that Hughes had for his topicsRead MoreWar Was The Only Option1547 Words   |  7 PagesArrogance on both sides would prove catastrophic. Once shots fired at Fort Sumter, war was the only option. This rush to action was the greatest failure in the war. As Catton describes in his book, a war began neither side prepared for. The mobilization of men was so large that in terms of percentage no other war in American history required such a large percentage of American men. Old world military tactics combined with new world technology resulted in human carnage never seen. Combined with utter hatredRead MoreThe Era Of Good Feelings1211 Words   |  5 Pagesincorrectly titled the â€Å"Era of Good Feelings.† Though many consider this time period to be one of unity and nationalism, the occurrences of this age indicate otherwise. Though there were a small amount of beneficial happenings in this era, the bad greatly outweighs the good. Perhaps America prospered economically toward the end of the era with industrialism thriving, but slavery, taxation, and the expansion of the country beckons the question of how this time i n America’s history could have ever beenRead MoreThe History and Influence of Jazz in America Essay example852 Words   |  4 PagesJazz is consider one of the most influential types of music an America History. Some of the greatest artist in the world have contribute to the success jazz have had not only on America History but throughout the world. This paper will explain the history of jazz, where it all came from and the effect it has had on the America Culture. Meltingpot.fortuecity.com states the in the 1930’s and 1940’s jazz was at it all time highest. Although it is unclear when jazz first started some believe jazzRead MoreIn The Years Before Abraham Lincoln Was Elected The Sixteenth1535 Words   |  7 PagesStates, the world had lived in an era that emphasized individualism, emotion, and nature. This era was called the â€Å"Romantic era†, or â€Å"Romanticism† as it is known today. Partially due to the Industrial Revolution, men and women had become intrigued by the advances in political structures and the rationalization of nature. This led to the rise of not only advancement in scientific endeavors and political evolution, Romanticism helped give birth to some of the greatest literary writers who have ever livedRead MoreThe Innate Genius Behind By Langston Hughes944 Words   |  4 PagesLangston Hughes was a pioneer of African-American literature and while he wrote an abundance of short stories, essays and plays, he is most well-known for his poetry. The innate genius behind these poems was that he wrote about the everyday lives of American men and women using simple and easily relatable language to invoke a sense of grand importance that most people could understand. His poetry presents a commentary in which both races can begin to better understand one another and also critiquesRead MoreThe Constitutional Right Of Liberty Of Contract, By Franklin D. Roosevelt And His New Deal1494 Words   |  6 Pageseverything started to plunge once the stock market crashed in 1929, which would become the greatest economic crisis in the history of The United States. â€Å"By 1932, the gross national product had fallen by one-third, prices by nearly half, and over 15 million Americans- 25 percent over the labor force- could not find work.† (Chapter 9 Page 195) It wasn’t until 1933, when Franklin D. Roosevelt became president, would Americans start to see economic improvements. His biggest threat to the other candidates whileRead MoreA Stone Of Hope : Prophetic Religion And The Death Of Jim Crow786 Words   |  4 PagesSouth with faith that his people could hew a stone of hope from a mountain of despair.† (1) An effort considered by many to be the greatest, most successful social movement in our nation’s history, the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s-60s ushered in accomplishments of equality in areas of social issues and liberal ideology at pace never witnessed before in American society. In A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow, author David L. Chappell analyzes how this feat was accomplished

Changes in Business Environment Free Essays

Anyone who is familiar with the major organizations in their area probably has observed firsthand how dramatically the business environment has changed in recent years. These changes have had a significant impact on organizational efforts to be successful. In practically every instance organizations have tried to more clearly identify and then focus on factors that impact their success. We will write a custom essay sample on Changes in Business Environment or any similar topic only for you Order Now One factor that seems to be receiving more attention than any other are the people who work for organizations. What organizations are realizing is that their likelihood of sustained success is most dependent on learning to get the maximum out of their employees. Such a realization has had a significant impact on the practice of human resources management (HRM). What’s more, business forecasters predict that the role of employees, managers, and HRM personnel are likely to see more changes in the decades ahead. Thus, individuals entering the business environment today (and tomorrow) require both an understanding of the importance of human resources and effective HRM to organizational success. As we move further into the twenty-first century, it’s becoming absolutely clear that the effective management of an organization’s human resources is a major source of competitive advantage and may even be the single most important determinant of an organization’s performance over the long term. Organizations have started to realize that their success is dependent on their ability to attract, develop, and retain talented employees. Robert Reich emphasizes this point when he suggests that in the future, the organization’s ability to attract, develop, and retain a talented workforce will be a critical factor in developing a high-performance organization. The long-term, sustained success of an organization in today’s changing and challenging business environment involves top management’s commitment to designing and implementing HRM programs geared to developing both high-performing employees and organizations. This means that top management anticipates the future need for employees and develops specific plans to obtain, develop, and retain the type of employees who meet the needs of a high-performing organization. Only by anticipating and working toward the development and retention of the right type of employees can any organization expect to be successful in a global, dynamic, and continuously changing competitive environment. An important element of organizational success is an HRM strategy where every manager is an HRM manager. For example, every manager must be expected to set goals for the development and satisfaction of employees. Second, every employee is viewed as a valuable resource, just like buildings and equipment. The organization’s success is dependent upon high-performing employees, and without such employees there is no competitive advantage for the organization. Finally, through effective HRM programs the organization’s goals are successfully integrated with individual employee needs. It is the thesis of this paper that HRM will continue to be an important element in achieving organizational success in the years to come. What makes one organization successful whereas another fails to make use of the same opportunities? For our purposes, the key to continued survival and organizational success lies not in the rational, quantitative approaches, but increasingly in a commitment to things like people, employee involvement, and commitment. Success for the organizations of today and tomorrow is being increasingly seen as dependent on effective HRM. Effective HRM positively affects performance in organizations, both large and small. Human resources management is the term increasingly used to refer to the philosophy, policies, procedures, and practices related to the management of an organization’s employees. While a great deal of research has been devoted to identifying the sources of workplace stress and its links to adverse health and organizational outcomes, little has been done to focus on interventions to improve working environments. In reviewing the practice overall of stress prevention and intervention at the workplace, three conclusions may be drawn. First, although there is a considerable amount of activity in the field of stress management, â€Å"it is disproportionally concentrated on reducing the effects of stress, rather than reducing the presence of stressors at work. † (Kahn Byosiere, 1992) To put it differently, stress management activities focus on secondary and tertiary prevention, rather than primary prevention. Whereas the latter involves interventions aimed at eliminating, reducing or altering stressors in the working situation, the former two are aimed at the effects of stress, with secondary prevention concerning the helping of employees (who are already showing signs of stress) from getting sick (for example, by increasing their coping capacity); and tertiary prevention concerning treatment activities for employees with serious stress-related health problems (for example, stress counseling/employee assistance programmers, the rehabilitation after long-term absenteeism). Second, most activities are primarily aimed at the individual rather than at the workplace or the organization, in other words, a worker-oriented approach, for instance, by improving employees’ skills to manage, resist or reduce stress, as opposed to a job or organization-oriented approach, for instance, by job redesign or in some way changing the corporate culture or management style. Moreover, as Kahn and Byosiere (1992) conclude in their literature review: ‘Even the programs that aim at stress inhibition tend to address subjective rather than objective aspects of the stress sequence; almost none consider the organizational antecedents (policy and structure) that intensify or reduce the presence of objective stressors’ (p. 633). A third peculiarity in the practice of stress prevention concerns the lack of a systematic risk assessment (‘stress audit’, identifying risk factors and risk groups) as well as of serious research into the effects of all these activities (Kahn and Byosiere, 1992). In the words of Kahn and Byosiere (1992): ‘The programs in stress management that are sold to companies show a suspicious pattern of variance; they differ more by practitioner than by company. When practitioners in any field offer sovereign remedies regardless of the presenting symptoms, patients should be wary’ (p. 23). Against the background of (1) clear evidence of the relationship between psychosocial work characteristics and health , (2) national and international legislation that put the emphasis on risk assessment and combating risks by changing the stressful situation, and (3) the basic idea of prevention, that is, eliminating the stress producing situation (prevention at the source), the current practice of stress prevention and intervention seems disappointing. Given the current status of stress prevention, a question that deserves attention is why it is that companies express a preference for ‘post hoc’ individual-directed interventions, as opposed to primary or job/organizational interventions. At least four factors seem to contribute to this rather one-sided ‘individual’-oriented approach : 1 Senior managers are often inclined to blame personality and lifestyle factors of employees who are absent from work or report health complaints, rather than the job or organizational factors, for which they are responsible. Senior management also often point to the potential role of stressful life events (family problems such as a divorce or the loss of a beloved), or responsibilities and obligations in the family life (raising children for example). Of course, on the micro-level (i. e. on the level of the individual employee) stressors at work are often accompanied by stressors in one’s family situation, but because of the mutual influence and spill-over between both domains, the causes and consequences can hardly be disentangled. Furthermore, holding individual characteristics responsible for differences in experienced stress, one cannot explain why some occupations show significantly more stress complaints and higher sickness absence rates than others. A risk attached to this view is that the employee is regarded as being ‘guilty’ of his or her own health problems, that is ‘blaming the victim’, with the potential threat in the workplace being overlooked. 2 The second reason may be found in the nature of psychology itself, with its emphasis on subjective and individual phenomena. Many psychology-oriented stress researchers are primarily interested in stress as a subjective and individual phenomenon. To some extent, this may be a legacy of the strong tradition in psychology to focus on individual differences (i. e. differential psychology), and on individual counseling and therapy (i. e. clinical psychology). In this context, a warning seems appropriate against ‘psychologism’, that is, the explanation of (a sequence of) societal events from an individual-psychic point of view. Because of this orientation, the potential impact of more ‘objective’ or ‘collective’ risk factors in the work situation (e. . poor management, work-overload and bullying), may go unnoticed and untreated. In stress research, there is a gap between what ‘theory’ preaches (that is, properly designed longitudinal studies, involving a randomized control group, collecting both subjective and objective measures that are analyzed properly with statistical techniques), and what is possible in practice. One of the main reasons for this gap is the difficulty of conducting methodological ‘sound’ interventions and evaluation studies in an ever-changing organizational environment. In the 1990s, not only the context of work is rapidly changing, but also ‘work’ itself. Work organizations are in a constant state of change, due, in part, to new production concepts (for example, team based work, lean production methods, telework), ‘the flexible workforce’ concept, the 24-hour economy, the increased utilization of information technology, and the changing structure of the work force (for example, more women working). These changes clearly affect the work behavior of employees, work group processes, as well as the organizational structure and culture. As a consequence, it is practically impossible to find two companies with comparable stress problems at the beginning of any intervention programme, of which the control company agrees not to undertake any action for a period of three or four years (the period a researcher might like to choose for an intervention project). A related problem is that it is often not in a company’s interest to facilitate ‘sound scientific research’ in the context of an ongoing business, involving interlopers from outside (i. e. researchers) and detailed data collection on the scene of sometimes confidential information. Senior managers can regard research of this kind as a nuisance to the primary organizational processes and objectives. 4 A fourth factor may be found in the discipline segregation within stress research, with a tendency of researching to neglect the collection of more objective data on the impact of stress and its prevention. Work and organizational psychologists concentrate primarily on ‘soft’ outcome variables (e. g. motivation, satisfaction, effect and health complaints), and are well-known for their questionnaire-oriented approach. Traditionally, it has been observed that stress researchers are reluctant to co-operate with economists. For instance in order to study the potential ‘hard’ outcome measures (that would include productivity, sickness absence rates and accident rates), as well as the financial effects of interventions. To put it differently, a history of gaining empirical insight in costs and benefits is merely lacking in stress research. Research in the field should in the future include some of the following: first, stress researchers should not only address ‘soft’ outcome variables (for example, motivation and satisfaction), but extend their focus to also include ‘hard’ outcome variables (for example, productivity and sickness absenteeism). Whereas work and organizational psychologists have often stated that an adequate stress prevention programme may positively affect productivity and sickness absenteeism, until now they have not laid down a sufficiently strong empirical foundation for this position. For too long, stress prevention advocates have based their arguments on a moral or humanistic appeal to the good employer (that is, on ‘industrial charity’), or on legal regulations (for example, working conditions legislation). It is beyond doubt that these are important and strong arguments. Still, it may well be that they are not enough, since these arguments are not those that primarily affect senior management, who are more ‘bottom line’ driven. Second, in order to increase the impact of stress prevention in the workplace, more emphasis should be placed on such factors as the quality of product and services, organizational flexibility, continuity, absenteeism, productivity, labor market facets and improved competitivity; and for there to be a multi-disciplinary approach rather than the traditional mono-disciplinary one (for example, co-operation with economists and ergonomists). And finally, the demonstration of examples of good preventive practice is considered as a sine qua non for developing effective stress prevention procedures and for the involvement of both social partners in this field (i. e. employers and employees). Stress has always been a topic of concern for business and industry. Health educators, in response to this concern, have offered a variety of stress management or stress reduction programs. However, McGehee points out that her discussion is not about what stress is or how stress can be managed or the latest research in stress management. The literature on these topics is profuse and easy to locate. Rather, she is concerned with the nature of stress management programs inside companies that have decided to make stress management a part of their employee development. Her discussion includes the reason behind a management program, the format of stress management programs, the selection of a stress management program, work issues and stress management, and the management of the stress response. Although stress has been a constant concern, a serious and growing problem in industry today is burnout. Klarreich relates his health education program on burnout, which was extremely well received in his organization. He describes the nature of burnout, the myths associated with this phenomenon, and the societal and familial influences that contribute to this problem. He delineates a number of steps to â€Å"put out the fire. † These include self-appraisal, alteration of expectations, communication to establish social support, and determination of a behavioral option. He indicates that the healthy employee of the future will be a â€Å"hardy employee. † Achieving excellence in the workplace has become the passion of most North American corporations. Pulvermacher presents a unique health education program, which he delivers as a workshop, to many corporate employees. He states that pursuing excellence requires the application of several fundamental skills. He reviews effective goal setting strategies, methods for avoiding the trap of perfectionism, techniques for managing self-defeating attitudes and beliefs, harnessing stress advantageously, increasing one’s self-discipline, managing conflict constructively, and communicating effectively. A variety of reasons for implementing stress management programs are ascribed to by the companies currently doing so. The major reasons include reducing health costs, improving productivity, and boosting employee morale. In many cases, stress management is part of a wellness program. Stress-related disorders, including certain headaches, stomach disorders, chronic muscular pain, cardiac and respiratory conditions, and psychosomatic complaints have been linked to a large percentage of doctor’s office visits and hospital tests and admissions. One goal of stress management programs is to provide alternate ways to respond to stress, to prevent potential disorders, and ultimately to reduce health costs. Stress level has been found to be linked to worker productivity. At moderate amounts of stress, performance is at its highest. Stress in moderate amounts, such as from reasonable deadlines, a focus on quality, rational performance rating systems, a system of accountability, often motivates performance. When stress rises to higher levels and a number of stressors are affecting the individual, performance deteriorates. At times of high stress, an individual is not as effective in solving problems, and on-the-job performance is negatively affected. The goal of stress management programs in this case is to provide ways in which employees can cope better with increasing stress and continue to perform well on the job. Stress management programs are usually popular with employees. Attendance at talks and workshops shows that the topic is a popular one. Many companies decide to implement these programs as morale boosters because they â€Å"can’t hurt anything. † Stress management has become an integral part of most preventive medicine programs. These programs attempt to include education and training in a variety of ways so that the employees can safeguard their health. How to cite Changes in Business Environment, Essay examples